¹Fatimah Mohammed Alwaer and ²*Maher Mohamed Abed El Aziz

¹Physics Department, Faculty of science Zawia, University of Zawia, Libya

²Chemistry Department, Faculty of Education Qaser Ben Ghasher, University of Tripoli, Libya

f.alwaer@zu.edu.ly¹                     *Corresponding author: mah.mohamed@uot.edu.ly²   

   (https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4999-3615)¹    (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9581-3690² )   

Abstract:

The present work provides a comprehensive review of recent advances in physics and technology of inorganic silicon solar cells, with a focus on operational principles, structural design, classification, and efficiency enhancement. It highlights the growing importance of solar energy in daily life, emphasizing its role in reducing dependance on fossil fuels, lowering electricity costs, enhancing energy security, and mitigating environmental impacts. The study categorizes solar cells into three generations based on materials and technological evolution: first generation (crystalline inorganic silicon), second generation (thin film technologies such as amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CIGS), and third generation (emerging technologies including perovskits, organic photovoltaics, quantum dots, and dye sensitized cells). Special attention is given to silicon solar cells due to their market value, reliability, and continuous efficiency improvements. The fundamental characteristics of silicon solar cells is discussed, including photon absorption, electron hole pair generation, and charge carrier separation at the p-n junction. Key equations such as the Planck-Einstein, Poisson's, and continuity equations are presented to describe the behavior and efficiency limits of these devices. The standard structure of a silicon solar cell is described including the n-type emitter, p-type base, anti-reflective coating, metallic contacts, and encapsulation materials. The paper also presents innovations in silicate-based materials such as rare earth doped yttrium disilicate (Y₂Si₂O₇) for down conversion of high energy photons, and silica (SiO₂) based nano coatings that have been shown to enhance cell efficiency by up to 9.32%. Ultrathin silica layers applied to TiO₂ surfaces in dye sensitized solar cells have demonstrated a 36% relative efficiency increase by reducing electron recombination. Finally, the paper outlines the fundamental efficiency equation for solar cells defining key parameters such as short circuit current (I_SC), open circuit voltage (V_OC), fill factor (FF), and overall power conversion efficiency (η). The study concludes that ongoing advancements in materials science, particularly in silicate chemistry/physics and surface engineering, hold great promise for overcoming current efficiency limitations and accelerating the global transition to sustainable solar energy.

Keywords: Photovoltaics, Silicon solar cells, Solar cell efficiency, Silicate materials Down conversion, Anti reflective coating, p-n junction, Renewable energy.